By Raymond Phipps
I was a graduate student in East Carolina University’s Maritime Studies program when NOAA Ocean Exploration offered me the opportunity to research U.S. Revenue Cutter Bear following the discovery of its wreck site in September 2021. This research became my master’s thesis, for which I extensively examined Bear’s configuration during its entire 89-year service to understand the changes made to the ship over time.
USS Bear anchored in Godhaven Harbor, Greenland, in 1884 as part of the famous Greely Relief Expedition. Image courtesy of the U.S. Navy. Download image (jpg, 175 KB).
My work entailed using computer aided design (CAD) software to build five 3D virtual models that represent Bear during various phases of its service life:
U.S. Revenue Cutter Bear and S.S. Corwin, Roadstead, Nome, Alaska, 1914. Image courtesy of the Library of Congress, Control Number 2012650309. Download image (jpg, 203 KB).
SS Bear of Oakland in its pre-World War II configuration in Antarctica in January 1941 where it was used to evacuate Americans at the beginning of the war. Image courtesy of the U.S. Navy. Download image (jpg, 272 KB).
To ensure my representations were accurate, I consulted secondary sources (e.g., books, book chapters, anthologies, and research articles). These sources directed me to primary sources on Bear, including documents on Bear’s initial construction in 1874, plans from 1885 when the U.S. government conscripted Bear, plans from 1897 while Bear served in the U.S. Revenue Cutter Service, 156 historic photographs that showed Bear throughout its service life, U.S. Revenue Cutter Service reports, and memoirs from passengers and crew members of Bear. These served as the source materials I used to create my 3D reconstructions of Bear and examine the changes made to it throughout its service life.
USS Bear off the Boston Navy Yard on July 2, 1941, where it was equipped as a warship once again to patrol off the coast of Greenland during World War II. Image Courtesy of the Naval History and Heritage Command, Catalog Number 19-N-24311. Download image (jpg, 1.84 MB).
In each model, I noted the addition and reduction of structures to Bear, both internally and externally. I analyzed these models based on Michael Schiffer’s theory of behavioral archaeology — which examines how human behavior affects or transforms artifacts after their initial use — to understand the motivations behind the modifications. I concluded that combinations of technological, economic, cultural, political, and institutional influences were behind the structural changes made to Bear, which were dependent on the specific period — and the associated purpose — of Bear’s service life.
The starboard side of U.S. Revenue Cutter Bear in its original (1874) configuration (SS Bear). The 3D scale at the bow of the ship represents 15 feet (1-foot increments from 1 to 5 feet and then 2-foot increments from 5 to 15 feet). This model was constructed using plans from the Smithsonian Institution Archives and plans from Mystic Seaport Museum. Model and image courtesy of Raymond Phipps. Download image (jpg, 239 KB).
The starboard side of U.S. Revenue Cutter Bear in its 1884 configuration for the Greely Relief Expedition (USS Bear). The modifications are in red. The 3D scale at the bow of the ship represents 15 feet (1-foot increments from 1 to 5 feet and then 2-foot increments from 5 to 15 feet). These modifications were constructed using plans from the Smithsonian Institution Archives and plans from Mystic Seaport Museum. Model and image courtesy of Raymond Phipps. Download image (jpg, 293 KB).
U.S. Revenue Cutter Bear with the modifications made from 1884 to 1926 during its career as a U.S. Revenue Cutter. During this time period, Bear was involved with numerous missions and individuals, including the Overland Relief Expedition, the Spanish Influenza Pandemic of 1919, and Captain Michael "Hell Roaring Mike" Healy, the first African-American commissioned as an officer in the U.S. military. The 3D scale at the bow of the ship represents 15 feet (1-foot increments from 1 to 5 feet and then 2-foot increments from 5 to 15 feet). These modifications were constructed using plans from Mystic Seaport Museum and historic photographs. Model and image courtesy of Raymond Phipps. Download image (jpg, 288 KB).
U.S. Revenue Cutter Bear in its 1926 to 1941 configuration (SS Bear of Oakland/USS Bear). It was during this period of time that Admiral Richard Byrd used Bear for his Antarctic Expeditions. The modifications are in red. The 3D scale at the bow of the ship represents 15 feet (1-foot increments from 1 to 5 feet and then 2-foot increments from 5 to 15 feet). These modifications were constructed using plans from Mystic Seaport Museum and historic photographs. Model and image courtesy of Raymond Phipps. Download image (jpg, 193 KB).
U.S. Revenue Cutter Bear in its 1941 configuration during World War II (USS Bear). The modifications are in red. The 3D scale at the bow of the ship represents 15 feet (1-foot increments from 1 to 5 feet and then 2-foot increments from 5 to 15 feet). These modifications were constructed using plans from Mystic Seaport Museum and historic photographs. Model and image courtesy of Raymond Phipps. Download image (jpg, 243 KB).
This work was supported by NOAA Ocean Exploration, the U.S. Coast Guard, the U.S. Coast Guard Historian’s Office, and the Foundation for Coast Guard History, To learn more about my work, I invite you to read my thesis "Eighty-Nine Years Before the Mast: An Analysis of Human Innovation and Maritime Technological Change in Bear (1874-1963) ."
Published on August 21, 2024
Schiffer, Michael. Formation Processes of the Archaeological Record. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1996.
